G.W.F.
Hegel wrote of a thesis in his Phenomenology of Mind of
the evolution of spirit as God realizing himself through history and
of course the Universe. That
may have been an informative paradigm for the Christian scientist
Charles Darwin as well as the political philosopher Karl Marx Each
adapted Hegel's paradigm to his own thesis in interpreting
substantive history. One may choose to adapt and employ Hegel's
paradigm in a different way though to describe an omnipotent God
pre-existing history and all things that are contingent ideas for
God. God is letting man evolve through
history.
The
Medieval era of the history of the Christian Church was an exciting
period of a little less than a millennium in which human society of
the west grew with the spiritual leavening of the spirit of God
bringing the nations together from a more primeval time as pagans of
the forests. In the preceding pagan era tribal associations commonly
with warrior as the basic male occupation jostled for turf.
Protracted war of Germanic tribes against Celts. Slavs to the east
met with Turkic and Mongolian tribes as a precursor to later great
conflicts of the invasions of Mongols and Turks from east to west.
Several hundred years after the fall of the western Roman Empire
Vikings would row and sail around Europe and journey on its rivers to
attack various peoples for profit. Christianity would become the
spiritual tie that drew and bound the leaders and many of the people
of the pagan world together.
The
Middle Ages became an age of discovery for mankind of his
intellectual, social and physical potential for being better in the
image of God. God is pure reason, logic and love surpassing all human
understanding. Bootstrapping any given Universe from the inclination
of His thought He donated the impetus and order of assembly of
existence for the development of human society during the middle
ages. God's modge panc (mind plans) comprising teleology is marvelous
to consider so far as one might make inferences of it.
With
the presence of the Christian Church and with its monks, priests and
Bishops nations were given spiritual reasons to interact at the
highest level of state. War and hostage taking were basic elements
of statecraft before the infusion of the Church into the social
order, yet of course with human beings the agents of socialization
that God employed the problems of sin in the state, people and
Christians continued. Development of the nations from the pagan
foundations of tribal turf instead of legal boundaries emerged. If
Kings sometimes donated land to the Church they sometimes appointed
Bishops as well (ref. Merovingian Kings).
As the
Christian Church developed an ecclesiastical structure and evolved
its method the nations too founded agencies and ideas, doctrines and
procedures of increasing sophistication. The problem in modern third
world nation start-ups of the lack of non-governmental agencies to
fill the void as catalysts for social cohesion and public development
were mitigated significantly during the middle ages by the
progressive advance of structure in and out of the church coinciding
with state advance. It is a marvelous subject to consider. Problems
with the succession of kings and right to rule internationally were
paralleled in the Avignon captivity and subsequent simultaneous
existence of three popes. While the controversy on the right of
investiture continued the issue of the right of any pope or patriarch
to act as monarch over all Christians, and even the politics of the
nations arose. While arguments over doctrine rising to the level of
heresy occurred political theories about the political rights of man
to be free from tyranny stirred. The assertions of the right of the
laity to select their own leader of the church made at the Council of
Constance supported the paradigm of traits toward political
independence from imperialism. One could find the development of
nationalism too in reactions against various formations of political
and/or ecclesiastical imperialism.
With
Phillip Shaff's list of contents of his study of Christian Church
History published in the late 19th century (following) it
is easy to comprehend the rise of complexity and structure that
implicitly occurred socially around the Christian world and beyond.
Even the Muslim world was influenced by Christian ethics. It is
challenging to imagine Muhammad arising in the absence of the
appearance of Jesus Christ the Savior or even the course of mass
social paganism through the same period without a spiritual
foundation. Francis of Assisi in personifying the work of the Lord is
a far cry different than the ethics of tossing deformed babies on the
public garbage heap or those stoking up chemical or biological
engines of holocaust. Humanity do not all follow the spiritual ethics
of the Lord and some do not know what they are.
History
of the Christian Church, Volume IV: The
Middle
Ages. A.D. 1049-1294 Phillip Shaff
Content
Items
The
Middle Age. Limits and General Character
The
Nations of Medieval Christianity. The Kelt, the Teuton, and the Slav
Genius
of Mediaeval Christianity
Periods
of the Middle Age
Conversion
Of The Northern And Western Barbarians
Character
of Mediaeval Missions
Literature
The
Britons
The
Anglo-Saxons
The
Mission of Gregory and Augustin. Conversion of Kent, a.d. 595-604 29
Antagonism
of the Saxon and British Clergy
Conversion
of the Other Kingdoms of the Heptarchy
Conformity
to Row Established. Wilfrid, Theodore, Bede
The
Conversion of Ireland. St. Patrick and St. Bridget
The
Irish Church after St. Patrick
Subjection
of Ireland to English and Roman Rule
The
Conversion of Scotland. St. Ninian and St. Kentigern
St.
Columba and the Monastery of Iona
The
Culdees
Extinction
of the Keltic Church, and Triumph of Rome under King David I
Arian
Christianity among the Goths and other German Tribes
Conversion
of Clovis and the Franks
Columbanus
and the Irish Missionaries on the Continent
German
Missionaries before Boniface
Boniface,
the Apostle of Germany
The
Pupils of Boniface. Willibald, Gregory of Utrecht, Sturm of Fulda
The
Conversion of the Saxons. Charlemagne and Alcuin. The Heliand, and
the
Gospel-Harmony
Scandinavian
Heathenism
The
Christianization of Denmark. St. Ansgar
The
Christianization of Sweden
The
Christianization of Norway and Iceland
General
Survey
Christian
Missions among the Wends
Cyrillus
and Methodius, the Apostles of the Slavs. Christianization of
Moravia,
Bohemia
and Poland
The
Conversion of the Bulgarians
The
Conversion of the Magyars
The
Christianization of Russia
Mohammedanism
In Its Relation To Christianity
Literature
Statistics
and Chronological Table
Position
of Mohammedanism in Church History
The
Home, and the Antecedents of Islâm
Life
and Character of Mohammed
The
Conquests of Islâm
The
Koran, and the Bible
The
Mohammedan Religion
Mohammedan
Worship
Christian
Polemics against Mohammedanism. Note on Mormonism
The
Papal Hierarchy And The Holy Roman Empire
General
Literature on the Papacy
Chronological
Table of the Popes, Anti-Popes, and Roman Emperors from
Gregory
I. to Leo XIII
Gregory
the Great. a.d. 590-604
Gregory
and the Universal Episcopate
The
Writings of Gregory
The
Papacy from Gregory I to Gregory II a.d. 604-715
From
Gregory II to Zacharias. a.d. 715-741
Alliance
of the Papacy with the New Monarchy of the Franks. Pepin and the
Patrimony
of St. Peter. A.d. 741-755
Charles
the Great. a.d. 768-814
Founding
of the Holy Roman Empire, a.d. 800. Charlemagne and Leo II
Survey
of the History of the Holy Roman Empire
The
Papacy and the Empire from the Death of Charlemagne to Nicolas I a.d.
814-858).
Note on the Myth of the Papess Joan 2
The
Pseudo-Isidorian Decretals
Nicolas
I., April, 858-Nov. 13, 867
Hadrian
II. and John VIII a.d. 867 to 882
The
Degradation of the Papacy in the Tenth Century
The
Interference of Otho the Great
The
Second Degradation of the Papacy from Otho I to Henry III. a.d.
97-1046
Henry
III and the Synod of Sutri. Deposition of three rival Popes. a.d.
1046
The
Conflict Of The Eastern And Western Churches And Their Separation
Sources
and Literature
The
Consensus and Dissensus between the Greek and Latin Churches
The
Causes of Separation
The
Patriarch and the Pope. Photius and Nicolas
Progress
and Completion of the Schism. Cerularius 2
Fruitless
Attempts at Reunion
Morals
And Religion
Literature
General
Character of Mediaeval Morals
Clerical
Morals
Domestic
Life
Slavery
Feuds
and Private Wars. The Truce of God
The
Ordeal
The
Torture
Christian
Charity
Monasticism
Use of
Convents in the Middle Ages
St.
Benedict. St. Nilus. St. Romuald
The
Convent of Cluny
Church
Discipline
The
Penitential Books
Ecclesiastical
Punishments. Excommunication, Anathema, Interdict
Penance
and Indulgence
Church
And State
Legislation
The
Roman Law
The
Capitularies of Charlemagne
English
Legislation
Worship
And Ceremonies
The
Mass
The
Sermon
Church
Poetry. Greek Hymns and Hymnists
Latin
Hymnody. Literature
Latin
Hymns and Hymnists
The
Seven Sacraments
The
Organ and the Bell
The
Worship of Saints
The
Worship of Images. Literature. Different Theories
The
Iconoclastic War, and the Synod of 754
The
Restoration of Image-Worship by the Seventh Oecumenical Council, 787
Iconoclastic
Reaction, and Final Triumph of Image-Worship, a.d. 842
The
Caroline Books and the Frankish Church on Image-Worship
Evangelical
Reformers. Agobardus of Lyons, and Claudius of Turin
Doctrinal
Controversies
General
Survey
The
Controversy on the Procession of the Holy Spirit
The
Arguments for and against the Filioque
The
Monotheletic Controversy
The
Doctrine of Two Wills in Christ
History
of Monotheletism and Dyotheletism
The
Sixth Oecumenical Council. a.d. 680 7
The
Heresy of Honorius
Concilium
Quinisextum. a.d. 692
Reaction
of Monotheletism. The Maronites
The
Adoptionist Controversy. Literature
History
of Adoptionism 1
Doctrine
of Adoptionism 5
The
Predestinarian Controversy
Gottschalk
and Babanus Maurus
Gottschalk
and Hincmar
The
Contending Theories on Predestination, and the Victory of
Semi-Augustinianism
The
Doctrine of Scotus Erigena
The
Eucharistic Controversies. Literature
The
Two Theories of the Lord's Supper
The
Theory of Paschasius Radbertus
The
Theory of Ratramnus
The
Berengar Controversy
Berengar's
Theory of the Lord's Supper 8
Lanfranc
and the Triumph of Transubstantiation 11
Heretical
Sects
The
Paulicians
The
Euchites and other Sects in the East
The
New Manichaeans in the West 524
The
State Of Learning
Literature
Literary
Character of the Early Middle Ages
Learning
in the Eastern Church
Christian
Platonism and the Pseudo-Dionysian Writings
Prevailing
Ignorance in the Western Church
Educational
Efforts of the Church
Patronage
of Letters by Charles the Great, and Charles the Bald
Alfred
the Great, and Education in England
Biographical
Sketches Of Ecclesiastical Writers
Chronological
List of the Principal Ecclesiastical Writers from the Sixth to the
Twelfth
Century
St.
Maximus Confessor
John
of Damascus
Photius,
Patriarch of Constantinople
Simeon
Metaphrastes
Oecumenius
Theophylact
Michael Psellus
Euthymius
Zigabenus
Eustathius
of Thessalonica
Nicetas
Acominatos
Cassiodorus
St.
Gregory of Tours
St.
Isidore of Seville
The
Venerable Bede (Baeda)
Paul
the Deacon
St.
Paulinus of Aquileia
Alcuin
St.
Liudger
Theodulph
of Orleans
St.
Eigil
Amalarius
Einhard
viiSmaragdus
Jonas
of Orleans
Rabanus
Maurus
Haymo
Walahfrid
Strabo
Florus
Magister, of Lyons 3
Servatus
Lupus
Druthmar
St.
Paschasius Radbertus
Patramnus
Hincmar
of Rheims
Johannes
Scotus Erigena
Anastasius
Ratherius
of Verona
Gerbert
(Sylvester II.)
Fulbert
of Chartres
Rodulfus
Glaber. Adam of Bremen
St.
Peter Damiani
History
of the Christian Church, Volume V: The
Middle
Ages. A.D. 1294-1517 Philip Schaff
Content
items
The
Hildebrandian Popes. A.D. 1049-1073. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . .
Sources
and Literature on Chapters I. and II. . . . . . . . . . . . .
Hildebrand
and his Training. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. .
Hildebrand
and Leo IX. 1049-1054. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Victor
II. and Stephen IX. (X.). 1055-1058. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Nicolas
II. and the Cardinals. 1059-1061. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The
War against Clerical Marriage. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . .
Alexander
II. and the Schism of Cadalus. 1061-1073. . . . . . . . . . Gregory
Vii, 1073-1085. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Hildebrand
elected Pope. His Views on the Situation. . . . . . . . . . . .
The
Gregorian Theocracy. .
Gregory
VII. as a Moral Reformer. Simony and Clerical Marriage. . . .
The
Enforcement of Sacerdotal Celibacy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The
War over Investiture. . . . . . . . . . . . .
Gregory
VII. and Henry IV. . . . .
Canossa.
1077. . . . . . .
Renewal
of the Conflict. Two Kings and Two Popes. .
Death
of Gregory VII. . . .
The
Papacy From The Death Of Gregory Vii. To The Concordat Of Worms.
A.D
1085-1122. . .
Victor
III. and Urban II. 1086-1099. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. .
Pascal
II. and Henry V. 1099-1118. . . . . . . . .
The
Concordat of Worms. 1122. . . . . . . . .
The
Conflict of the Hierarchy in England. William the Conqueror and
Lanfranc.
. . . . . . . . . .
William
Rufus and Anselm. . . . . . .
Anselm
and Henry I. . . . .
The
Papacy From The Concordat Of Worms To Innocent Iii. A.D.
1122-1198.
. . . . . .
Innocent
II., 1130-1143, and Eugene III., 1145-1153. . .
Arnold
of Brescia. . . . . . . . . .
The
Popes and the Hohenstaufen. . . . . .
Adrian
IV. and Frederick Barbarossa. . . .
Alexander
III. in Conflict with Barbarossa. . . . .
The
Peace of Venice. 1177. . . . . .
Thomas
Becket and Henry II of England. . .
The
Archbishop and the King. . . .
The
Martyrdom of Thomas Becket. Dec. 29, 1170. . . .
The
Effects of Becket's Murder. . . . .
Innocent
Iii. And His Age. A.D. 1198-1216. . . . . .
Literature.
. .
Innocent's
Training and Election. . . .
Innocent's
Theory of the Papacy. . . . . .
Innocent
and the German Empire. . . .
Innocent
and King John of England. . . . .
Innocent
and Magna Charta. . . . .
The
Fourth Lateran Council, 1215. . . .
The
Papacy From The Death Of Innocent Iii. To Boniface Viii.
1216-1294.
. . . . . .
The
Papal Conflict with Frederick II Begun. . . . . .
Gregory
IX. and Frederick II. 1227-1241. . . . .
The
First Council of Lyons and the Close of Frederick's Career.
1241-1250.
. .
The
Last of the Hohenstaufen. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The
Empire and Papacy at Peace. 1271-1294. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The
Crusades. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . .
Literature
on the Crusades as a Whole. . .
Character
and Causes of the Crusades. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The
Call to the Crusades. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The
First Crusade and the Capture of Jerusalem. . . . . . . . . . . .
The
Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem 1099-1187. . .
The
Fall of Edessa and the Second Crusade. . . . . . . .
The
Third Crusade. 1189-1192. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The
Children's Crusades. . .. . . .
The
Fourth Crusade and the Capture of Constantinople. 1200-1204. . .
Frederick
II. and the Fifth Crusade . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
St.
Louis and the Last Crusades 1248, 1270.
The
Last Stronghold of the Crusaders in Palestine. .
Effects
of the Crusades. . . . . . . .
The
Military Orders. . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The
Monastic Orders. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . .
The
Revival of Monasticism. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Monasticism
and the Papacy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The
Monks of Cluny. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The
Cistercians. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
St.
Bernard of Clairvaux. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The
Augustinians, Carthusians, Carmelites, and other Orders.
Monastic
Prophets. .. . . . . . . . . . .
The
Mendicant Orders. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Franciscan
Literature. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
St.
Francis d'Assisi. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The
Franciscans. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
St.
Dominic and the Dominicans. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Missions.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Literature
and General Survey. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Missions
in Northeastern Germany. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Missions
among the Mohammedans. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Missions
among the Mongols. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The
Jews. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. .
Heresy
And Its Suppression. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.
Literature
for the Entire Chapter. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The
Mediaeval Dissenters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The
Cathari. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Peter
de Bruys and Other Independent Leaders. . . . . . . . . .
The
Amaurians and Other Isolated Sects. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The
Beguines and Beghards. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The
Waldenses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The
Crusades against the Albigenses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The
Inquisition. Its Origin and Purpose. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The
Inquisition. Its Mode of Procedure and Penalties
.
. . . . . .
Universities
And Cathedrals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Schools.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Books
and Libraries. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.
The
Universities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The
University of Bologna. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.
The
University of Paris. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. .
Oxford
and Cambridge. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The
Cathedrals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. .
Scholastic
And Mystic Theology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Literature
and General Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Sources
and Development of Scholasticism.
Realism
and Nominalism. . . . . . . . . . . . .
Anselm
of Canterbury. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Peter
Abaelard. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Abaelard's
Teachings and Theology. . . . . .
Younger
Contemporaries of Abaelard. . . . .
Peter
the Lombard and the Summists. . . . .
Mysticism.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
St.
Bernard as a Mystic. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Hugo
and Richard of St. Victor. . . . . . . . . .
Scholasticism
At Its Height. . . . . . . . . . . . .
Alexander
of Hales. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Albertus
Magnus. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Thomas
Aquinas. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Bonaventura.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Duns
Scotus. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Roger
Bacon. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The
Sacramental System. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Literature
on the Sacraments. . . . . . . . . . .
The
Seven Sacraments. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Baptism
and Confirmation. . . . . . . . . . . . .
The
Eucharist. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Eucharistic
Practice and Superstition. . . . .
Penance
and Indulgences. . . . . . . . . . . . .
Penance
and Indulgences. . . . . . . . . . . . .
Extreme
Unction, Ordination, and Marriage.
Sin
and Grace. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The
Future State. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Pope
And Clergy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The
Canon Law. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The
Papal Supremacy in Church and State.
The
Pope and the Curia. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Bishops.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The
Lower Clergy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The
Councils. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Church
and Clergy in England. . . . . . . . . .
Two
English Bishops. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Popular
Worship And Superstition. . . . . . . .
The
Worship of Mary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The
Worship of Relics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The
Sermon. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Hymns
and Sacred Poetry. . . . . . . . .
The
Religious Drama. . . . . . . . . . . . .
The
Flagellants. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Demonology
and the Dark Arts. . . . . .
The
Age passing Judgment upon Itself
History
of the Christian Church, Volume VI: The
Middle
Ages. A.D. 1049-1294- Phillip Shaff
Content
Items
The
Decline Of The Papacy And The Avignon Exile.
. . . . . . .
Sources
and Literature. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Pope
Boniface VIII. 1294-1303. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Boniface
VIII. and Philip the Fair of France. . . . . . . . . . . . .
Literary
Attacks against the Papacy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The
Transfer of the Papacy to Avignon. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The
Pontificate of John XXII 1316-1334. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The
Papal Office Assailed. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The
Financial Policy of the Avignon Popes. . . . . . . . . . . . .
The
Later Avignon Popes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The
Re-establishment of the Papacy in Rome. 1377. . . . . .
The
Papal Schism And The Reformatory Councils. 1378-1449
Sources
and Literature. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The
Schism Begun. 1378. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Further
Progress of the Schism. 1378-1409. . . . . . . . . . . .
The
Council of Pisa. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.
The
Council of Constance. 1414-1418. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The
council of Basel. 1431-1449. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The
Council of Ferrara-Florence. 1438-1445. . . . . . . . . . . .
Leaders
Of Catholic Thought. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Literature.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Ockam
and the Decay of Scholasticism. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Catherine
of Siena, the Saint. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Peter
d'Ailly, Ecclesiastical Statesman. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
John
Gerson, Theologian and Church Leader. . . . . . . . . . .
Nicolas
of Clamanges, the Moralist. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Nicolas
of Cusa, Scholar and Churchman. . . . . . . . . . . . .
Popular
Preachers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The
German Mystics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Sources and Literature. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The
New Mysticism. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Meister
Eckart. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
John
Tauler of Strassburg. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Henry
Suso. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The
Friends of God. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
John
of Ruysbroeck. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Gerrit
de Groote and the Brothers of the Common Life. . . . . .
The
Imitation of Christ. Thomas à Kempis. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The
German Theology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
English
Mystics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.
Reformers
Before The Reformation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Sources
and Literature. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The
Church in England in the Fourteenth Century. . . . . . . . .
John
Wyclif. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Wyclif's
Teachings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Wyclif
and the Scriptures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The
Lollards. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
John
Huss of Bohemia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Huss
at Constance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Jerome
of Prag. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The
Hussites. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. .
The
Last Popes Of The Middle Ages. 1447-152. . . . . . . . . . . .
Literature
and General Survey. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Nicolas
V. 1447-1455. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Aeneas
Sylvius de' Piccolomini, Pius I. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Paul
II. 1464-1471. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Sixtus
IV. 1471-1484. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Innocent
VIII. 1484-1492. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Pope
Alexander VI--Borgia. 1492-1503. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Julius
II., the Warrior-Pope. 1503-1513. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Leo
X. 1513-1521. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.
Heresy
And Witchcraft. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. .
Literature.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Heretical
and Unchurchly Movements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Witchcraft
and its Punishment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The
Spanish Inquisition. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.
The
Renaissance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. .
Literature
of the Renaissance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The
Intellectual Awakening. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Dante,
Petrarca, Boccaccio. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Progress and Patrons of Classical Studies in the 15th Century.
Greek
Teachers and Italian Humanists.
The
Artists. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The
Revival of Paganism. . . . . . . . . .
Humanism
in Germany. . . . . . . . . . . .
Reuchlin
and Erasmus. . . . . . . . . . . .
Humanism
in France. . . . . . . . . . . . .
Humanism
in England. . . . . . . . . . . .
The
Pulpit And Popular Piety. . . . . . . . .
Literature.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The
Clergy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Preaching.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Doctrinal
Reformers. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Girolamo
Savonarola. . . . . . . . . . . . .
The
Study and Circulation of the Bible. .
Popular
Piety. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Works
of Charity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The
Sale of Indulgences. . . . . . . . .
